Catalogue · ID 125

История Чечни в XIX-XX веках

Author: Ахмадов Я. З., Хасмагомадов Э. Х.
Year of publication: 2005
Describes Russian colonization of peoples: several peoples
Publication rights: not allowed (a 2005 publication under copyright)

Files not published

Where we got it

Edition: https://search.worldcat.org/isbn/5934860461

Where the knowledge base cites it

This material is cited in 186 places.

Campaigns

• Instrumentalization of a Natural Disaster by the Colonizers: Paskevich and Rosen Declare the Earthquake "God's Punishment of the Nokhchi People for Disobedience to the Empire" (1830)

  Akhmadov wrote: "supporters of the Russian orientation claimed that the earthquake had been caused by the wrath of Allah over the attempt at an armed uprising"

• Velyaminov's winter raids on Chechen hamlets and villages along the Sunzha: capture of women and devastation of homesteads (1831-1832)

  Akhmadov wrote of the same strike: “Another large expedition was directed against the Chechen auls located along the banks of the Sunzha”

• "Death sentence" for Lesser Chechnya: the massacre of Duba's hamlet, forest clearings, fortresses, annihilation of the population and stanitsas on the sites of burned auls (1847-1851)

  On the sites of the burned auls the empire planted Cossack stanitsas - seven stanitsas in 1847 and 1851

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857)

  Khasmagomadov convey the same policy in the formula of the proclamations - the command warned the Chechens that it would let them "neither plow nor sow," and conclude: "This promise was kept in the literal sense, and in 1856-1857 a famine set in in Chechnya such as the Chechens had almost never known"

  In the same period the empire was buying up the leadership of the resistance - Bata Shamurzayev, a naib of Shamil (deputy of the Imam, leader of the highlanders' resistance of Dagestan and Chechnya to the Russian conquest), who went over to the empire in the autumn of 1851, received a rank, a pension and land "as an example for other potential defectors"

  - and was building institutions of subordination: in 1852 in the Groznaya fortress the "Chechen People's Court" was instituted, which worked out the "Rules for the Governance of Submissive Chechens"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864)

  What moved the insurgents was recorded by the imperial side itself: Colonel Belik reported to the head of the Terek oblast in late May 1860 about the Benoy people who had returned to their burnt-out homes - they "earnestly begged permission to settle in their old places, - otherwise they had all sworn to die rather than submit"

  The program of the period was set down by the chief of the Main Staff of the Caucasus Army, Kartsov (Kartsev in other sources), in a secret memorandum of 1864: "the only sure means of securing the lasting submission of the Chechens is to organize their mass resettlement, partly to Turkey, partly to the plain, far away from the mountains"

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917)

  Baryatinsky called the system of governing the highlanders that he was creating 'military-popular' and considered it temporary", and add what the name contained: "Contemporaries, without embarrassment, called this system of administration 'military'"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878)

  He was our guest"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872)

  The goal was formulated in the correspondence of the command of the Caucasus Army on ending the war in the Western Caucasus: "...the question of when the war will end, under the present circumstances, comes down to this – how soon we will manage to send off to Turkey the population hostile to us"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917)

  but neither Cossack stanitsas nor Chechen auls are to be settled on them"

  All this cannot but be considered typical colonial plunder" (a desiatina is a little over a hectare)

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917)

  The wells from which Chechen owners had once sold oil became a line in the host's budget, and when on 6 October 1893 the first industrial gusher burst from a well of the company of oil industrialist Akhverdov - "in the first two weeks alone it yielded 150 thousand puds of oil"

  ), when he refused to extend to the Chechen lands the rules on peasant leasing of the subsoil: "...the state lands populated by the mountain inhabitants were given to them not into ownership by right of property, but only into use..."

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913)

  Khasmagomadov write, "Chechnya was governed by measures characteristic of a state of martial law", a "military-occupation regime" persisted in the land, and the restrictive measures only grew

  Onto this background fell the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907: on 24 October 1905 martial law was imposed across the whole of Chechnya, and from January 1906 field courts-martial went to work

  …was Zelimkhan from the village of Kharachoy: in 1901, by his own words, he was a family man from a well-off household with a mill and an apiary, but after a quarrel between two families over a betrothal the authorities arrested him together with his old father and relatives; Zelimkhan escaped from the Grozny prison and until his death in 1913 remained the administration's chief enemy in the land

  The authorities answered not him but everyone - on top of that there was the weapons ban, which "applied exclusively to the highlanders and the out-of-town settlers and did not extend to the Cossacks"

  … 3 more

• First World War in Chechnya: removal of the "unreliable element" into the "Savage Division", extraordinary security and mobilization of strikers (1914-1917)

  will be as it were a recognition of privileges for the Chechens for their robberies and brigandage, and in the cause of the pacification of the North Caucasus will bring harm rather than benefit"

  The decision on the gradual introduction of conscription for the Muslim highlanders the empire took only in 1913, but by the start of the war the administration of the Terek oblast had not even begun to compile the family lists - a kind of household census - and did not dare to declare mobilization: it confined itself to recruiting volunteers

  The only mobilization the Russian Empire declared was not for the war but against a strike: in May 1916 it mobilized Grozny workers who held military service deferrals, for taking part in the strike

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919)

  After the fall of the empire (campaign C1189) the peoples of the North Caucasus tried to live in a state of their own: in May 1918 the highland political forces proclaimed the independent Mountain Republic from the Black Sea to the Caspian; its first government was headed by the Chechen Tapa Chermoyev, an oil industrialist (campaign C1173), its parliament by the Ingush Vassan-Girey Dzhabagiev

  Khasmagomadov write: "The main force of the Volunteer Army was made up of Cossacks, and therefore the actions of the Denikinites in the Terek oblast were aimed, first of all, at restoring the privileged position of the Cossacks"

  Denikin did not recognize the Mountain Republic: he refused to receive the delegation of its government; General Lyakhov, appointed ruler of the Terek oblast, agreed to regard the republic's parliament as no more than "a consultative organ attached to his person", and as ruler of Chechnya the Volunteer Army appointed General Aliev

  I demand submission to my authority, and whoever does not submit to it, let him blame himself for what will come of it"

  … 1 more

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924)

  By the spring of 1920 the Denikinites had rolled back from the North Caucasus, and the emirate of Sheikh Uzun-Haji, which had fought against them, fell apart on its own: the emir died, "The emirate went into the grave with him, without any political consequences for Chechnya and Dagestan"

  The operation must be conducted in real earnest, up to the destruction of the unsubmissive auls"

  almost nothing is known not only to the Revolutionary Tribunal or the Political Department of the army, but to me or the army commander either"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936)

  The units of the Red Army and the operational groups of the GPU lost in all 27 men killed..."

  In the case of the "center" the OGPU arrested up to 3 thousand Chechens

  The enserfment of the peasantry by the state"

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940)

  Khasmagomadov write: "by various estimates, in the '30s - early '40s no fewer than 30-40 thousand Chechens and Ingush became victims of the Stalinist terror"

• "Bombs Rained Down on the Auls": Repression and Air Strikes on Mountain Chechnya on the Eve of the Deportation (1941-1942)

  The commissariats sent up to 13 thousand more men, unfit for combat service, to the "labor army" - construction battalions

  Already in September 1941 the labor-army trains found themselves in the frontline zone, where more than 10 thousand of these men died

  Khasmagomadov write: "The unfortunate citizens were forced either to hide from arrest or to pay bribes to the officials of the military commissariats and the NKVD" - and add: "Mass bribes taken from the highlanders became the everyday practice of the military commissariats"

  Khasmagomadov likewise see "features of social protest" in the events

  … 1 more

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949)

  This was confirmed by Beria himself during his trial in 1953"

  Khasmagomadov write: "All of the above allows us to qualify with confidence the deportation, in this case of the Chechens and Ingush, as the gravest of crimes - genocide"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965)

  By its decree of 26 November 1948 the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR had already declared the exile eternal: the Chechens and Ingush were "exiled forever," with up to 20 years of hard labor for escape

  Khasmagomadov, "and returned home regardless of the bans"

  People arrived to a homeland occupied by settlers and cut down by a redrawing of borders: they had to buy their own houses back from the new owners

  …the empire did not return to the Chechens and Ingush: in 1944 it gave them to North Ossetia and, restoring the republic in 1957, left 1,600 square kilometers of black earth with Ossetia, adding to the republic in exchange 5,000 square kilometers of the sands of the Burun steppe beyond the Terek; the protests of the Chechen-Ingush delegation were rejected by the leadership of the Bolshevik party

  … 1 more

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989)

  In most rural districts the first secretaries of the district committees were Russians"

  The factories and oil enterprises of Grozny hired newcomers rather than Chechens: by the end of the 1980s only 16 % of oil-refining workers were Chechens or Ingush, according to official statistics of 1979 up to 28 % of the able-bodied lived off their household plots, and according to the census of 1989 almost a quarter of the people lived outside the republic

• Non-Recognition and the Attempted Military Invasion: Moscow's Response to the Independence of the Chechen Republic (September-November 1991)

  After their return from exile the Chechens were ruled for three decades by Russians sent from Moscow; only on 1 July 1989 did an assembly of the region's occupation administration for the first time reject Moscow's candidate and choose a Chechen, Zavgaev, as head of the region

Procedures

• Instrumentalization of a Natural Disaster by the Colonizers: Paskevich and Rosen Declare the Earthquake "God's Punishment of the Nokhchi People for Disobedience to the Empire" (1830) — technique Imposition of Its Own Picture of Reality

  Akhmadov wrote about how this lie sounded among the Nokhchi: “supporters of the Russian orientation claimed that the earthquake was caused by the wrath of Allah over the attempt at an armed uprising”

• Velyaminov's winter raids on Chechen hamlets and villages along the Sunzha: capture of women and devastation of homesteads (1831-1832) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  Akhmadov recorded: “Another large expedition was directed against the Chechen auls situated along the banks of the Sunzha”

• Failed Attempt at Religious Subjugation of the Highlanders to the Empire through the Hiring of the Preacher Taj ad-Din Mustafin (1836-1841) — technique Creation of Agents of Influence

  The goal was stated in the source: "with the aim of undermining the spiritual influence" of Tashu-Hadji "and reducing the effectiveness of the preaching of ghazawat" (ghazawat - the highlanders' war for independence from the Russian conquest)

  The agent "had managed to make a trip to the lowland societies of Dagestan" when Tashu-Hadji, by letter, "under threat of death forbade him to appear on Chechen territory"

• The amanat-and-tribute system of colonel Pullo in the seized auls of Chechnya (1836-1840) — technique Administrative Corruption and Extortion

  Khasmagomadov write from archival documents that two Chechen elders brought to the Kabardian prince Bekovich-Cherkassky, who served the empire and was influential on the Terek river, "a petition drawn up on behalf of many Chechens, in which they complain of the oppressions and injustices of major-general Pullo" - the prince refused to accept the petition

• The amanat-and-tribute system of colonel Pullo in the seized auls of Chechnya (1836-1840) — technique Forced Disarmament

  Khasmagomadov name disarmament the trigger of the uprising: "The fear that after the disarmament the authorities would introduce in Chechnya the all-Russian serfdom order, shameful for people of noble standing, which practically all Chechens considered themselves to be, made the highlanders take up arms"

• Forcing Chechnya into submission after the fall of Akhulgo and suppression of the general uprising of 1840 (1838-1840) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Khasmagomadov write - "In December 1839 major-general Pullo passed through 28 villages without a single shot, collected 4 thousand rubles in silver from the Chechens, confiscated 455 rifles and seized 97 abreks" (abrek - the empire's label for an outlawed highlander)

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Economic Blockade

  Khasmagomadov write that the Chechen naibstvos (districts of the imamate governed by the imam's deputies, the naibs) became its economic base: the grain and other farm produce of Chechen peasants gave "the imamate the possibility of living for almost two decades under conditions of a complete economic blockade"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Economic Control

  In addition, a number of restrictions were introduced on the sale of iron, salt, gold and other goods"

  The network of controlled points expanded: in the second half of the 1840s the number of barter yards was brought to 11; in 1846 barter points were opened in the Cossack stanitsas of Chervlennaya and Mozdokskaya; over 1846 the highlanders brought goods worth 231 thousand rubles to all the barter yards

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Khasmagomadov write: "To the satisfaction of the Russian command, Akhverdy-Magoma perished in the summer of 1843 in a clash near the Khevsur village of Shatili"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Bribery of Elites

  Khasmagomadov record a separate fund: "for the bribery of influential persons from among the highlanders, 45 thousand rubles in silver were allocated"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Creation of Puppet Religious Institutions

  Khasmagomadov write - "In 1845 the Crimean Tatar qadi Qadiasker Seid-Halil Efendi was sent to the Groznaya fortress; his efforts were soon marked by a high decoration - the Order of St Anna, third class"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Military Intervention

  Khasmagomadov count: "The total losses in killed, wounded and missing came to 66 officers and over 1700 lower ranks"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Destruction of the Natural Landscape

  Khasmagomadov record the escalation: "from the beginning of 1846 the troops passed from the cutting of individual clearings to the literal annihilation of the dense Chechen forests"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Construction of Fortresses

  Khasmagomadov record the function: "The construction of the two new fortifications - Kazakhkichu and Zakan-Yurt - made it possible to exclude entirely the movement of large Chechen detachments beyond the Sunzha and still further isolated the Terek country from the rest of Chechnya"

  In 1844 - "the construction of the Vozdvizhenskoye fortification in autumn 1844 on the site of the destroyed aul of Chakhkeri (Chakhkar-Atagi), at the mouth of the Argun gorge"

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  Khasmagomadov record: "to the Cossacks were given in Lesser Chechnya the 'ancestral' lands of the inhabitants of Karabulak and Galashki" (Lesser Chechnya - the lowland-piedmont western part of Chechnya; Galashki - a Vainakh community in the valley of the Assa)

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Deportation

  In the end the largest community of Lesser Chechnya - Karabulak - was deprived of its lands entirely" (the Karabulaks - a Vainakh community between Chechnya and Ingushetia)

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Migratory Replacement

  the stanitsa of Mikhailovskaya (present-day Sernovodskaya) was founded"

  They also record: "In 1845-46 the Sunzha military line was formed, and in the stanitsas built on Karabulak lands the Cossacks of the 1st Sunzha regiment were settled"

  On all these places Cossacks have been settled, fortifications built with the regiments' headquarters..."

• "Constriction of Chechnya from all sides": blockade, secret war, punitive expeditions and the Sunzha Line (1840-1846) — technique Pitting Neighboring Peoples Against Each Other

  Khasmagomadov count "1 thousand men of the Georgian militia, 16 sotnias of Cossacks and highland militia (Kabardian and Ossetian)" (militia - armed detachments of highlanders and Georgians in the empire's service)

• "Death sentence" for Lesser Chechnya: the massacre of Duba's hamlet, forest clearings, fortresses, annihilation of the population and stanitsas on the sites of burned auls (1847-1851) — technique Restriction of Settlement Geography

  …of the Sunzha Cossack line and other numerous military fortifications, the greater part of the country's population found itself herded onto a space roughly 70 versts from west to east and 40 versts from south to north" (a verst is slightly more than a kilometer); per person there was less than 2 desiatinas of land (a desiatina is slightly more than a hectare) against a survival norm of 5

  Still earlier the empire took on the very order of settlement: "as early as the 1840s the Russian authorities strove to liquidate the numerous hamlets on the territory of lowland Chechnya, forcing their inhabitants to resettle into large villages with the aim of easing the collection of taxes and tributes and ensuring proper police control over the population"

• "Death sentence" for Lesser Chechnya: the massacre of Duba's hamlet, forest clearings, fortresses, annihilation of the population and stanitsas on the sites of burned auls (1847-1851) — technique Migratory Replacement

  the village of Mokhmad-Yurt - the stanitsa Magomed-Yurtovskaya (1847), present-day Voznesenovskaya; the village of Eldarkhan-Yurt - the stanitsa Karabulakskaya (1851); the village of Semashki - the stanitsa Samashkinskaya (1851); the village of Zaki-Yurt - the stanitsa Zakan-Yurtovskaya, later Romanovskaya (1851); the village of Alkhan-Kala - the stanitsa Alkhan-Yurtovskaya, later Yermolovskaya (1851)"

  of burned Akh-Borze they write plainly: "the burned Karabulak village of Akh-Borze is replaced in 1847 by the stanitsa Assinovskaya"

• "Death sentence" for Lesser Chechnya: the massacre of Duba's hamlet, forest clearings, fortresses, annihilation of the population and stanitsas on the sites of burned auls (1847-1851) — technique Economic Control

  The number of state barter yards (points of exchange of goods under the supervision of officials) in the second half of the 1840s "was increased to 11"

  Khasmagomadov write of "the first Grozny trade fair," to which the highlanders brought "various goods on 500 arbas" (an arba is a two-wheeled cart)

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857) — technique Artificial Famine

  Khasmagomadov: "in 1856-1857 a famine set in in Chechnya such as the Chechens had almost never known"

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857) — technique Economic Blockade

  Khasmagomadov convey, after the chronicle of the Dagestani author Genichutlinsky, a blockade of salt, iron and coarse cotton cloth

  In the years of the Crimean War the empire did not loosen the blockade: the same historians write - "Up to 200 thousand soldiers and officers confidently blockade the areas of the highlanders' operations in the North Caucasus - even the heavy defeats in the Crimea did not make the Russian command loosen this blockade"

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857) — technique Bribery of Elites

  as an example for other potential defectors"

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857) — technique Creation of Agents of Influence

  I hope to be useful to the Russian government and I guarantee to destroy everything I made at Shamil's, because the master of the house knows best what goes on in it"

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857) — technique Installation of a New System of Governance

  as a counterweight to sharia, implanted in Chechnya by Imam Shamil, the Russian authorities strove to strengthen the influence of customary law - the adats"; the first chairman of the "Chechen" court was the Russian colonel Bartolomey, the interpreters - Bata Shamurzayev and Kasim Kurumov, and the execution of sentences was controlled by the "Administration of the Chechen People" with the right of coercion

  …"providing punishment for disobedience to the authorities, for harboring abreks, for contact with 'unpacified' compatriots, the conditions of 'coming out with submission' from the territory of the Imamate" ("unpacified" in the imperial lexicon means those who had not submitted to the empire; abrek is the imperial label for a highlander outside the law); in 1854 the "Rules" were supplemented

• "Neither plow nor sow": the pogrom of Chechnya, organized famine, the buying-up of elites and the institutions of subjugation (1852-1857) — technique Migratory Replacement

  Khasmagomadov give the pair in their general series: "the village of Churt-Togi - the stanitsa Petropavlovskaya (1856)"

  The method was confirmed in writing the same year by General Muravyov, commander-in-chief in the Caucasus: "to consolidate our dominion by stanitsas moved forward - is a method already tried with profit, and it should not be changed"

• Forest clearings and famine: Yevdokimov's conquest of Chechnya (1857-1859) — technique Deportation

  Khasmagomadov write that Yevdokimov "in the autumn of 1859 and at the beginning of 1860 set about the inhabitants of the mountain society of Benoy", part of whom "were dispersed among the surrounding auls and hamlets"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  In early June 1860, troops, Cossacks, and militia were sent into Benoy, where the deported families had returned without permission, led by Baysangur of Benoy, head of that society under Imam Shamil (the leader of the highlanders’ resistance to the Russian conquest)

  Ibragimova dates the taking of the aul to 26 September and adds: "The retaliatory repressions were directed at the entire population of the insurgent districts"

  In December 1860 - January 1861 General Kundukhov's operation swept through Ichkeria - ten infantry battalions, four hundred Cossacks, and seven hundred Chechen militia: "'flying' detachments were widely used to pursue the insurgents, while the main mass of the troops was engaged in 'combing' the terrain"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Total Destruction of Infrastructure

  Khasmagomadov, "15 villages and a multitude of mountain khutors were left destroyed"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Deportation

  Khasmagomadov reckon: "more than 1200 inhabitants of Benoy, Engenoy, Dattykh, Gendargen and other villages of Ichkeria were forcibly resettled"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  The land of the Akki society was thereby declared 'state property'"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  In that case the Kunta-Haji followers promised to obey the authorities once more"

  Those who came had left their firearms behind deliberately - the decision to go with blades alone is attributed to Machik-Mullah, who announced that Kunta-Haji, having appeared to him, would fill the soldiers' rifles with water

  Tumanov allowed them to attack, and then gave the order to open rifle and artillery fire"; they put the dead at "over 150"

  Eighteen people were exiled in this case - the sheikh himself, indefinitely, to Ustyuzhna in Novgorod province; his brother Movsar - to the Vyborg fortress; the vekils, the sheikh's trusted men, - to Smolensk province; nine rank-and-file zikrists - to fortress labor with subsequent settlement in Siberia

  … 1 more

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Forced Surrender of Fugitives and Rebels

  Khasmagomadov quote the demand verbatim: "...to assist in restoring the order disrupted by the zikrists...", and record the ban on the "loud" zikr, compliance with which was to be watched over by the clergy and the village elders

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Manufacturing a Collaborating Elite

  In Kundukhov's operation in the winter of 1860-1861 marched the "7 hundreds of Chechen militia" of Colonel Chermoyev

  Atabi-Mullah Atayev, naib of Lesser Chechnya (Atabai in the imperial documents), surrendered in November 1861, according to a document, "to the commander of the Chechen irregular cavalry divizion, Vagap Aduyev" - Aduyev, who served the empire holding its rank

  Khasmagomadov write - "measures were taken to induce the most prominent representatives of the Chechen Muslim clergy to come out openly against Kunta-Haji and the teaching he preached"

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Imposition of Alien Governance

  Khasmagomadov write: "in 1867 Major General Prince Tumanov was appointed head of the Middle military otdel, while of the eight heads of the mountain okrugs six were colonels and two were majors"

  arms and raise against them the troops and Cossacks subordinate to him, hand highlanders over to a military court and administratively expel 'undesirable elements' from the oblast"

  Khasmagomadov conclude: "Thus the court system created for the highlanders of the Terek oblast was not merely not removed from the control of the military authorities but, on the contrary, directly subordinated to them"

  The 1895 regulation on village communities handed the right of assembly to a limited number of "elected representatives", and the okrug head could strip an "elected representative" of his office and dissolve the entire village assembly

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Erasure and Renaming of Place Names

  became the town of Grozny in 1870

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  Khasmagomadov the decision on administrative exile for a term of up to five years was taken by the commander of the Caucasus Army, and the place of exile was Chechen Island in the Caspian

  Khasmagomadov record the mechanics: mountain villages paid for stolen livestock "if the tracks of the stolen livestock turned out to be lost near the given village", while "the possibility that the thieves might not be highlanders at all was completely ignored"

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Forced Passportization

  Inside the oblast a regime of absences operated: leave of up to a month was granted by the village elder, for a longer term - by the okrug head; unauthorized absence was punished by fine, arrest or public works, and a highlander could not move from one community to another without the consent of two village communities - the one he was leaving and the one he was joining

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Forced Disarmament

  Khasmagomadov record the contrast: highlander militiamen in imperial service carried weapons at all times, "unlike ordinary highlanders, who could not appear armed outside their villages"

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Taxation

  Khasmagomadov confirm: "in 1887 the Russian government introduced a special monetary levy for them"

  On top of the levy, village communities bore obligations in kind: maintaining the elder and the village board, the roads, ditches and watch posts

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Administrative Corruption and Extortion

  Khasmagomadov write: fine moneys were spent on maintaining exiles and secret agents, and at times covered officials' embezzlement - in 1893 the head of the Nadterechny uchastok, lieutenant Tomashevsky, embezzled over 300 rubles collected from Chechen villages

  The nature of the power was admitted from within by colonel Belik, appointed in 1860 the first head of the Chechen okrug; he later wrote: in Chechnya "there reigns for the most part not law but arbitrary rule, often founded on the dishonesty of the chief, and thereby we only sow in the people distrust of ourselves, even hatred"

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Terror

  At the start of the twentieth century the Terek authorities began to bring in military detachments and Cossack units for mass searches of highland auls - formally to confiscate weapons and to "detain fugitives"

  Khasmagomadov write what this turned into: sweeping searches of mountain villages "were as a rule accompanied by looting and other unlawful acts by soldiers and Cossacks, which was encouraged in every way by the Terek authorities, who constantly sought a pretext for applying harsher measures against the highlanders"

  …a search staged by Cossacks at the bazaar of the village of Shaami-Yurt mass disturbances broke out, the ataman of the Samashkinskaya stanitsa, Gridnev, forbade his men to use firearms, and the clash ended without bloodshed - after which the head of the Terek oblast removed Gridnev from his post and expressed displeasure to the Cossacks who had taken part in the disturbances for their "passivity"

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Pillage

  Khasmagomadov write that the searches "were as a rule accompanied by robberies and other unlawful actions of soldiers and Cossacks, which was encouraged in every way by the Terek command"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  Khasmagomadov write - he "destroyed 5 villages, including the auls of Makazhoy and Sadoy, arrested up to a thousand people and seized a large number of livestock"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Terror

  Khasmagomadov record: at the final stage the punitive forces "acted in full accordance" with this order

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Artificial Famine

  Their inhabitants meanwhile were in such a state as if the greatest of floods had struck them"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Mass Killings of Civilians

  As a reward for every person killed or caught in the forest the authorities paid 25 rubles" (abrek - the empire's label for a highlander it had outlawed)

  separate sums were set for the leaders - "for Alibek-Haji - several thousand rubles"

  Captives were to be killed if an attempt was made to free them - and this was carried out: "during an attack by the insurgents on the detachment escorting 135 arrested inhabitants of the village of Mekhkety to the Vedeno fortress, the soldiers killed up to 20 Mekhkety villagers"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  The field court-martial sat in Grozny on 4-6 March 1878: "Of the 17 persons tried, 11 were sentenced to death, among them Alibek-Haji, Uma Duev, one of his sons, and Dada Zalmaev"

  Akhmadov and Khasmagomadov add: the execution took place "amid dead silence and the evident sympathy of the assembled townspeople for those being executed"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Deportation

  "Already in August 1877 the first 150 inhabitants of the villages of Zandak and Dattykh were deported; small parties of exiles were being sent off throughout the autumn"

  It is also known that over 500 Chechens were sentenced to lifelong katorga labor"

  Within Chechnya, mountain villages were being driven down onto the plain: "From the locality indicated, the villages of Mekhkety, Khatuni and Tauzen have been deported almost to a man"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Bribery of Elites

  The starshina (headman) of Shali, Borshchik Khambulatov, who organized the repulse of the insurgents in April 1877, "was granted the rank of ensign of the militia and an annual salary of 600 rubles, and received a lifelong pension - 100 rubles a year"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Creation of Agents of Influence

  Thanks to this unexpected help the Simsir hamlets were quickly captured"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Pitting Neighboring Peoples Against Each Other

  The viceroy in the Caucasus, Mikhail Romanov, expressed the wish to bring the Dagestani militia (militia - armed detachments of highlanders in the empire's service) into the military operations in Chechnya, and on the Dagestan side, near the village of Botlikh, a detachment of regular infantry and 12 sotnias of mounted and foot Dagestani militia was concentrated

  At the beginning of May a detachment under Colonel Nakashidze was assembled in neighboring Dagestan - two battalions of the Apsheronsky and Samursky regiments, 6 druzhinas and 3 sotnias of militia with guns

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Pillage

  During the destruction of the five villages of Cheberloy the detachment of Nakashidze "arrested up to a thousand people and seized a large number of livestock"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Deportation

  Khasmagomadov reckon "up to 23 thousand Chechens," of whom more than 4.5 thousand families were inhabitants of Lesser Chechnya and the Ichkerinsky okrug, and in all in the 1860s "up to 20% of the total number of Chechens" were expelled

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Migratory Replacement

  would no longer dare to threaten us with an uprising and would not escape the most vigilant surveillance"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Creation of Economic Hopelessness

  The transfer of vast lands on the plains to Cossack stanitsas left thousands of highlanders without means of subsistence"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Dehumanization

  And I will take care to present this matter to the Sovereign in the proper light..." - to the emperor the matter was presented as "a voluntary movement of the Chechens themselves"

  The head of the Kuban oblast, General Yevdokimov, who carried out the expulsion of the highlanders of the Western Caucasus, formulated the principle: "Philanthropy first of all to our own; as for the highlanders, I consider myself entitled to grant them only what remains for their share after the last of Russian interests has been satisfied"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Disinformation

  The head of the Terek oblast, General Loris-Melikov, stressed in a special dispatch to the Main Staff of the Caucasus Army: "For the success of the affair it is necessary that the highlanders not only not know of our desire to assist the resettlement, but the local authorities must, on the contrary, as it were dissuade them from this intention"

  In Chechnya "forged proclamations were circulated, purporting to come from the Turkish government, in which the migrants were promised a cordial welcome and good material provision"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Bribery of Elites

  General Kundukhov, until then himself head of the Chechen okrug, received from the Viceroy "a most delicate assignment – to conduct unofficial negotiations with the Turkish government on carrying out a mass resettlement of the Chechens" and a written instruction "to proceed to arouse among the Chechen population a striving to leave for Turkey"

  For the agitation he received 5 thousand rubles from the treasury

  Kundukhov personally was paid 45 thousand rubles "ostensibly for property left behind in Russia," with the treasury's total expenses exceeding 130 thousand

  Osmanov was no outside appointee: in the consolidated list of the Imamate's naibs he stands as "Saadulla Osmanov of Nikhaloy (naib of Lesser Chechnya)"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Restriction of Settlement Geography

  The empire's answer to the pleas of those who returned was fixed in a formula "at the very highest level": "Of any return migration of the highlanders there can be no talk"

  Those who tried to return secretly were caught for years: in 1867, 162 people were detained; in 1868 - 663; in 1869 - 369; in 1870 - 1,263; "Over ten years, from 1862 to 1872, 5,964 highlanders (mostly Chechens) managed to return to the Terek oblast, of whom 2,315 the authorities forcibly expelled to Turkey once again"

  Even those permitted were not allowed home: the returning Karabulaks (a Vainakh society kindred to the Chechens) "were not admitted to their native lands, but settled as a single aul, Sagopshi, on the lands of the Chechen village of Psedakh"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  Khasmagomadov, of the 643 thousand desiatinas (a desiatina is a little over a hectare) of lowland and piedmont Chechnya, Chechen villages were left 347 thousand, Cossack stanitsas were handed 222 thousand - a third, officers as private owners got 28 thousand, fortifications 17 thousand, and the treasury about 30 thousand desiatinas of "reserve" land

  The forests were placed under armed guard, and the unfortunate peasants caught felling wood were pursued with heavy penalties"

  all the other plots, whose owners to their honor did not risk giving a false oath, were declared communal"

  Khasmagomadov write that "the railway trackbed (and, accordingly, the station and all the railway facilities) passed over lands belonging to the Terek Cossack Host", and "the Grozny city railway station was built on the land of the Groznenskaya stanitsa"

  … 1 more

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  had 11 desiatinas of land, while the average Cossack family owned more than 92 desiatinas"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Creation of Economic Hopelessness

  such fantastic landlessness as in Mountain Chechnya was known to no other region of the Russian Empire"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Economic Control

  In 1895 the Cossacks leased out 420 thousand desiatinas (a desiatina is a little over a hectare) of "yurt" (stanitsa allotment) lands, the official rent for which came to over 140 thousand rubles a year; on top of that, "reserve" lands went out on lease - up to 65 thousand desiatinas annually

  By 1913 the stanitsas were leasing out 424 thousand desiatinas of host lands and collecting 806.5 thousand rubles in rent, and the main tenants were Chechens - up to 77 percent of peasant households

  Khasmagomadov write that the authorities "seriously feared that, by renting the same plots for many years, the highlanders might in the end lay claim to them", and, besides, sought to attach to the oblast as many "out-of-town" peasants as possible, "and therefore at the end of the 19th century an ordinance came out forbidding Cossacks to lease their land directly to the highlanders"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Administrative Corruption and Extortion

  The ban on leasing land directly to the highlanders, introduced at the end of the 19th century, produced middlemen: "The result of this decision was the appearance of a large number of intermediaries through whom the land still reached the highlanders, but at a higher price"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Bribery of Elites

  the largest allotments went to the Chechen ruling families - the Taymazovs (6550 desiatinas), the Bekovich-Cherkasskys (over 6350), the Turlovs, the Eldarovs; land was also handed out to Russian officers - "Colonel Ippolitov received more than 1 thousand desiatinas of land in the Argun okrug"

  Land also paid the lower administration: "village elders received five shares each of arable and hay lands"

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917) — technique Expropriation of Resources
• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  …own land for the working of the subsoil, the head of the Terek oblast, General Kakhanov, in 1894 "categorically objected to the extension to the Chechen lands" of these rules - and demanded that, even if the communities' rights were recognized, the resolution on leasing the land be confirmed by the uchastok chief and a third of the income go "to pay the podymnaya tax of the communities concerned"

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917) — technique Resource Exploitation

  The Terek Cossack Host of the Russian Empire leased out the seized Chechen lands to oil companies and lived on rent from another people's subsoil: in 1899 about 21.9 million of the 26.22 million puds of total output were extracted on the host's lands, and in that year alone the companies paid the host 631.8 thousand rubles

  Khasmagomadov write: the largest owner of the oil-bearing plots turned out to be the host itself; it did no extraction of its own, and the usual terms of a lease were 150 rubles a year per desiatina (a desiatina is a little over a hectare) plus "from 2 to 6 kopecks for every pud of oil extracted"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Mass Killings of Civilians

  Khasmagomadov write that the soldiers of the Shirvansky regiment, led by Colonel Popov, used their weapons, "...shooting the hiding Chechens, hunting them down in attics and cellars, while the reservists and hooligans smashed and looted shops before the eyes of the authorities"; by the historians' count, 27 Chechens were harmed in the pogrom, of whom 17 were killed

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Terror

  …Russian Empire of late 1907 prescribed to the commander of the brigade stationed in the Grozny and Vedeno okrugs, in the event of an uprising, "...to act with full energy, scattering the bands to the point of total annihilation, and likewise wiping off the face of the earth the villages that sheltered them, bearing in mind that such a method will be not only more effective but also more humane"

  In August 1908 the village of Tsatsan-Yurt was subjected to an "execution" with mass searches, and its residents had a "contribution" for undelivered weapons exacted from them - 7 thousand rubles

  In 1911, in the Vedeno and Grozny okrugs, all hamlets built "without permission" were demolished, and 100 thousand rubles were exacted from the Chechen population of both okrugs in favor of those who had suffered "...during the attack of Zelimkhan's band"

  People from the abrek's circle were killed and hanged: Salambek Gorovodzhiev was hanged; in March 1911 Ayub Tomayev was killed in Starye Atagi

  … 1 more

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  …of Nizhaloy, Nokhch-Keloy, Khoy and Makazhoy, whose residents stubbornly refused to submit, were subjected to artillery bombardment"; it was noted that as a result of the punitive expedition "...the greater part of the population of the Vedeno okrug, seized by panic, fled to the mountains, where it suffers hunger and cold"; several hundred people were arrested, most of them convicted and exiled

  In August 1908 the village of Tsatsan-Yurt was subjected to an "execution" with mass searches

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Collective Punishment

  Following the Chervlyonnaya conferences of 1905-1906 the Russian Empire established a mechanism of circular monetary responsibility: fines on the guilty, "and in the event of their financial insolvency - the penal sanctions passed to the village community to which the guilty party belonged"

  Starye Atagi was fined twice for sheltering its fellow villager, an abrek - 3, then 6 thousand rubles; the same village was ordered, within three days, to hand over "100 rifles, two thousand cartridges and 500 daggers", to give up the abreks Tomayev and Khorsiev who were sheltering in the village, and "to collect funds for equipping the village police station with telephone communication"

  Tsatsan-Yurt in 1908 paid a "contribution" for undelivered weapons - 7 thousand rubles

  In 1911, by order of the Viceroy, "100 thousand rubles were exacted" from the entire Chechen population of the Grozny and Vedeno okrugs in compensation to those who had suffered "...during the attack of Zelimkhan's band"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Implantation of Officials and Military Personnel

  In 1911 the Russian Empire appointed "government elders" in the zone of Zelimkhan's operations and put troops on the residents' own upkeep: "Military teams were sent to be quartered in the villages of Kharachoy, Dyshne-Vedeno, Mekhkety, Zavirkhi, Khattuni, Eshelkhotoy, Elistandzhi, Tauzen, Isti-Su, Mayrtup, Khoy, Ikharoy, Rigakhoy, Makazhoy, Avtury and the Varanda hamlets"

  Khasmagomadov write of this practice: "the sending of military units into Chechen villages was widely practiced, and their upkeep lay as a heavy burden on the local residents"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Total Destruction of Infrastructure

  In 1911 the Russian Empire demolished the Chechen hamlets of two okrugs: "A forcible demolition was begun of all the hamlets built 'without permission' (and there were no others here) in the Vedeno and Grozny okrugs"

  Chechen hamlets "were repeatedly demolished, including under the pretext of 'punishment' for sheltering abreks"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Hostage-Taking

  Khasmagomadov write, "found nothing smarter than to give the command to seize the women relatives of the abrek Zelimkhan in Kharachoy"

  "In the autumn of 1910 Zelimkhan's family was seized and exiled", and in November 1911 "24 relatives of Zelimkhan were exiled together with their families, after they failed to comply with the demand to hand over or kill Zelimkhan" - by the authorities' report, these people had also "...agitated among the rest of the population of Khorochoy that this should not be done"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Deportation

  By 1913 the Russian Empire had arrested and exiled from the Terek oblast thousands of people "on the charge of sheltering the abrek"

  As a result a great number of families lost their main breadwinners and found themselves on the brink of destitution" - part of his takings Zelimkhan spent on supporting the families of the exiled

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  On 24 October 1905 the Russian Empire imposed martial law "in the Grozny, Vedeno and Khasav-Yurt okrugs of the Terek oblast, that is, in the whole of Chechnya", and on 23 December extended it to the entire oblast

  the Viceroy of the Caucasus ordered that 10 thousand single-shot Berdan rifles and a million cartridges be distributed to the Cossacks of the Terek oblast free of charge"

  On 22 June 1909 martial law was lifted - but "in the Terek oblast a 'state of reinforced protection' was introduced at the same time", whose ordinances "effectively reduced to 'nought' the democratic rights and freedoms 'granted' by the imperial decree of 17 October 1905"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  In January 1908 the head of the Terek oblast, by a secret circular, ordered "to establish secret surveillance over the activity of the Muslim clergy, '...and likewise over the appearance of emissaries from Turkey'"

  Zelimkhan's chief protector - Bamatgiri-Haji Mitayev, as well as the Ingush sheikh Batal-Haji Belkhoroyev, died in exile"

• Collective punishment in the abrek era: fines, quartering of troops and exile for Zelimkhan (1905-1913) — technique Sham Trials

  …were handed over "...persons who have committed murder, brigandage, robbery and attack on a sentry or military guard, as well as armed resistance to the authorities and attack on the ranks of the troops and the police and on all officials in general..."; during the work of these courts, until 19 April 1907, 195 people in the Caucasus were sentenced to death and another 47 condemned to katorga

• First World War in Chechnya: removal of the "unreliable element" into the "Savage Division", extraordinary security and mobilization of strikers (1914-1917) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  For this the empire in 1914 created the Caucasus Native Cavalry Division, nicknamed the "Savage Division", - six national regiments of highlanders, four mounted sotnias each: the Chechen, Dagestani, Ingush, Kabardian, Tatar and Circassian

  The same goal was later named by General Denikin, who in the Civil War headed the Volunteer Army that occupied Chechnya in 1919 (campaign C1174): "It was all but the striving to remove the most restless elements from the territory of the Caucasus that was the sole reason for this formation"

  Khasmagomadov write: "16 were killed and over 30 soldiers of the divizion wounded"; some of those who fled took shelter in Chechen auls and homes

  For instigation the imperial administration arrested two residents of Starye Atagi - Murda Khamidov and Dzhabrail Tolgaev; the same historians write: "Both were sentenced to death and escaped it only thanks to the February Revolution of 1917"

• First World War in Chechnya: removal of the "unreliable element" into the "Savage Division", extraordinary security and mobilization of strikers (1914-1917) — technique Forced Mobilization

  Khasmagomadov write: "an order was issued on the immediate mobilization of all Grozny workers holding a deferral from military service and taking part in the strike"

  The strike began with a wage dispute: on 12 May the workers handed the Council of the Congress of Terek Oil Industrialists written demands for a wage rise of 50% on average, on 21 May at two in the afternoon the oil fields stopped at the alarm whistles of the plants, and on 31 May, the same historians write, "the workers everywhere began to return to work"

  Those already recruited did not want to fight either: of the one and a half thousand men of the fourth draft of the "Savage Division" training in the reserve regiment, only 553 reached the combat units - the rest the military command returned to the Caucasus "in view of their 'unreliability'"

• First World War in Chechnya: removal of the "unreliable element" into the "Savage Division", extraordinary security and mobilization of strikers (1914-1917) — technique Taxation

  Khasmagomadov write: "the upkeep of the national regiments lay as a heavy burden on the peasant-highlanders"

  State funds did not suffice for the rest either: the new horses assembled to replenish the division in the autumn of 1916 were, as the same historians write, "very poor", and the division's command sought the allocation of funds to buy horses

• First World War in Chechnya: removal of the "unreliable element" into the "Savage Division", extraordinary security and mobilization of strikers (1914-1917) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  On 13 August 1914 the Russian Empire placed the Terek oblast under the regime of "extraordinary security" - an imperial regime that handed the residents over to the extrajudicial powers of the administration - and then the oblast administration issued an order "on the protection of tranquility at the enterprises", under which the fate of "violators of tranquility" was decided by military courts

  Khasmagomadov remark, "all those arrested turned out to be Muslims"

  The police arrested nine more workers on the first day of the strike - for sounding the alarm whistles of the plants

• First World War in Chechnya: removal of the "unreliable element" into the "Savage Division", extraordinary security and mobilization of strikers (1914-1917) — technique Censorship

  On 16 August 1914, three days after placing the Terek oblast under "extraordinary security", the Russian Empire introduced in the oblast a provisional statute on military censorship

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  At the end of February 1919 four regiments of the Volunteer Army - the division of General Shatilov - attacked the village of Goity with artillery, for its refusal to hand over the Red Army men sheltering there; detachments from the surrounding villages came to its aid, and the Denikinites retreated toward Grozny

  On 23 March the army struck from Grozny at Gudermes

  the village was captured"; more than 400 of its defenders died

  In the course of the fierce battle more than 500 people died on the Chechen side, including over 400 Tsatsan-Yurt villagers proper"

  … 1 more

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Total Destruction of Infrastructure

  In its March offensive along the railway the Volunteer Army destroyed villages to the ground: "for several days stubborn battles went on, in the course of which the villages of Berdykel and Ustar-Gordoy ended up completely destroyed, and a number of other villages were captured"

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Desecration of the Dead

  Khasmagomadov write: "As a punishment for the stubborn resistance, the White command for the course of a month did not permit the bodies of the village's fallen defenders to be committed to the earth"

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Terror

  The Volunteer Army answered the uprising in Grozny in December 1919 with mass executions: after the suppression of the rising on the night of 23 December the insurgent leader Gikalo reported: "Right now there are nightmarish reprisals in Grozny: 79 people have been hanged and a mass of people shot"

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Forced Registration of Subjecthood

  Khasmagomadov, and the congress left the ultimatum without an answer

  the return of the pilfered materials from the railway and the organization of deliveries of provisions and fodder for the army"; for failure to fulfill a separate demand - to immediately return a group of Cossacks captured in the vicinity of the village - the army took Tsatsan-Yurt by storm

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Forced Surrender of Fugitives and Rebels

  Khasmagomadov (the Goity Soviet - the soviet of the village of Goity); General Shatilov reported: "...unrest is taking place among the Chechens, as part of them do not want the Bolsheviks handed over"

  The demand to hand over "all Red Army men, Bolsheviks and abreks" entered the April ultimatum as well

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Forced Mobilization

  In February 1919 the Volunteer Army announced at the congress in Aldy a mobilization of the highlanders - at the villages' own expense: "the villages were obliged to equip and maintain the mobilized at their own cost"

  General Aliev, the appointed ruler of Chechnya, carried out the mobilization: "The 200-300 horsemen assembled in this way (together with Kabardians and Ingush) took part in the suppression of peasant unrest in the Stavropol region"

• Denikin's terror in Chechnya: destroyed auls and 15 thousand dead (1919) — technique Puppet Government

  General Lyakhov, appointed ruler of the Terek oblast, agreed to regard the republic's parliament as no more than "a consultative organ attached to his person"

  Khasmagomadov write: "As Ruler of Chechnya on behalf of the Volunteer Army was appointed a well-known military man - General Eriskhan (Iriskhan) Aliev, a Chechen by origin"

  Aliev as ruler of Chechnya" - attended by representatives of 42 villages, mostly supporters of the Atagi Soviet (the Chechen National Council, which sat in Starye Atagi), entrepreneurs and part of the clergy

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Installation of a New System of Governance

  Soviet Russia placed an unelected extraordinary body over Chechnya: on 3 April 1920 a congress in Grozny "proclaimed the transfer of all power to the Chechen Revolutionary Committee of five members"

  Khasmagomadov record: "within a short span the peasant Soviets were dissolved twice (in August 1921 and in July 1922) and the power of the revkom was restored again"

  arrested" on the orders of Ordzhonikidze, head of the Caucasus Bureau of the Communist Party's Central Committee

  The Mountain ASSR, which had given legal form to the highlanders' autonomy, "did not last long and in 1924, having fulfilled its tasks as conceived by the party leadership, ceased to exist"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Forced Disarmament

  Besides the seizure of a significant quantity of weapons, up to 30 'bandits' were captured and shot, and their property was confiscated by the authorities"

  The year 1924 "ended in the Chechen Autonomous Oblast with a large military operation to seize weapons, in the course of which almost 3 thousand rifles and about 400 revolvers and pistols were collected"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Terror

  The execution made such '...a devastating impression on the masses of Chechens who had not yet had time to disperse after the congress' that the command of the Caucasus Labor Army demanded that henceforth death sentences on Chechens be carried out as far away from Chechnya as possible"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  The official agreements with him were treacherously broken; he was suddenly arrested, taken to Rostov-on-Don and, after a brief investigation, shot"

  Khasmagomadov

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Hostage-Taking

  In 1923-1924 the Chechen revkom made hostage-taking an official practice of the fight against "banditry": "Measures were taken to register all criminals present in Chechnya, and the practice was introduced of taking hostages from among the close relatives of bandits in hiding"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique False Compromise / Entrapment

  Khasmagomadov call this "a clear (and temporary) concession to the Muslim clergy of Chechnya and Ingushetia": "Already in May 1921 the TsIK of the GASSR by its resolution deprived the sharia courts of financing from the state budget and of the support of state bodies"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Pillage

  Khasmagomadov write, "received almost no property or food allowance", which pushed them into "self-supply" - "...the Red Army not only ran riot, but took away grain, cattle and so forth, terrorizing the population with senseless killings"

  In the summer of 1920, in Tsentoroy, the Chechens routed a unit of the Caucasus Labor Army "engaged in outright plunder"

  The property of the killed was taken too: during the disarmament of May 1922 "up to 30 'bandits' were captured and shot, and their property was confiscated by the authorities"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Sham Trials

  Of any participation of a defense in the proceedings there could be no talk"

• Sovietization of Chechnya: revkoms in place of Soviets, punitive operations and Cheka executions (1920-1924) — technique Killing of Prisoners and Detainees

  The special department of the Caucasus Labor Army carried out mass shootings uncontrolled even by its own command: army commissar Vrachev complained that of them "...almost nothing is known not only to the Revolutionary Tribunal or the Political Department of the army, but to me or the army commander either"

  During the disarmament of May 1922 people were first captured and then shot: "up to 30 'bandits' were captured and shot, and their property was confiscated by the authorities"

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Military Intervention

  Tactically the troops, as well as the operational groups of the GPU, were divided into seven groupings"

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Forced Disarmament

  Over the three weeks of the operation, from 25 August to 12 September 1925, the troops of the USSR took from the inhabitants of Chechnya 25299 rifles, 4319 revolvers and pistols, a machine gun and about 80 thousand cartridges

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Indiscriminate Attacks

  Of the 242 disarmed settlements 101 came under rifle, machine-gun and artillery fire, 16 under strikes from the air

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  Khasmagomadov from a journal publication of 1995: six killed civilians, 30 wounded, a further 12 killed assigned to the "bandits", with the troops' own losses at five killed and nine wounded

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Total Destruction of Infrastructure

  Khasmagomadov write: "...the aul of Urus-Martan was subjected to artillery shelling and air strikes for three days, the aul of Dai was bombed three times, for two days artillery shelled the auls of the Zumsoy society"

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Collective Punishment

  Khasmagomadov confirm the number - "119 houses were blown up"

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Ushaev

  Khasmagomadov write that in Urus-Martan, "after the artillery and aviation shelling of the settlement, the sheikhs Solsa-Haji Yandarov and Bilu-Haji Gaytayev surrendered to the authorities - soon, incidentally, released owing to their complete innocence"

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Sham Trials

  Through this procedure passed 183 of the more than three hundred arrested in the course of the operation - the investigation of their cases ended in extrajudicial shooting

• The disarmament of Chechnya: a military operation with artillery shelling and bombing of auls (1925) — technique Killing of Prisoners and Detainees

  Of the total number of arrested, 105 were shot on the spot; against 183 an investigation was opened, which also ended in extrajudicial shooting; 21 were exiled"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  In 1926, 1.3% of the voters were thus barred from taking part in the elections, and in 1927 - already 4.5%"

  As a result of these repressions, by the end of 1931 the number of kulak households in Chechnya had shrunk threefold compared to 1929"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Installation of a New System of Governance

  Khasmagomadov call this "a manifest (and temporary) concession to the Muslim clergy"

  Just a month later, in May 1921, the leadership of that same republic stripped the sharia courts of budget money and of the support of its organs

  Khasmagomadov write, that attempt "failed completely"

  Criminal and land cases and labor disputes were removed from their competence, state financing was terminated, and Soviet organs were directly forbidden to apply to the sharia courts"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Seizure of Religious Institutions

  Khasmagomadov write that in 1929 in the Nadterechny district "an experiment begins in removing the mullahs from the distribution of the voluntary donations of Muslims for the benefit of the poor and the clergy - the zakat" - the empire handed the distribution over to its own peasant mutual-aid committees

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Destruction of Local Knowledge Systems

  Khasmagomadov write: "Literally at every mosque there operated schools teaching the Arabic language and script, as well as the basics of arithmetic"

  and of the first Soviet years: "while religious schools at the mosques existed in the overwhelming majority of settlements, the secular school had yet to be created anew, since the few 'highlander' schools that had existed in the Terek oblast before the revolution had closed"

  Khasmagomadov write: "attempts to close the schools at the mosques by force provoked protests of the population, often accompanied by a refusal to build Soviet schools, as happened in the auls of Gudermes and Achkhoy-Martan"

  Displacing the khyuzhar at once did not succeed: by May 1930, 168 religious schools were still operating in Chechnya and Ingushetia

  … 1 more

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  Thus collectivization was accompanied by a sharp reduction of livestock numbers - in the single year 1930 they shrank in Chechnya by almost 300 thousand head"

  Khasmagomadov, "in the Vedeno, Itum-Kali and Shatoy okrugs about 1.5 thousand hectares of land were seized from the kulaks and the mosques"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Taxation

  Khasmagomadov, on top of the confiscated livestock "a meat procurement plan was also handed down, which meant, in essence, the confiscation of a significant part of the livestock"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Deportation

  Khasmagomadov write of the same expulsions counting people, not households: "At the beginning of 1930, 1,500 peasants declared kulaks are expelled from Chechnya"

  Khasmagomadov is briefer: "in 1935, 450 kulak families were expelled from Checheno-Ingushetia, another thousand families were expelled from Chechnya and Dagestan in 1936"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  …the uprising was led by Mutsu Shamilev (the Nokhchi know him as Motsu of Shuani), Ibragim Ninakhadzhiev, Usman Ushkhaev, Khusein Istamulov and Dada Kebetov; on 20 March, 300-400 insurgents attacked the oil extraction site on Mount Sterch-Kertch, another 700-800 dug in on the mountain ridge, covering the uprising's district from the direction of Khasav-Yurt, a town in neighboring Dagestan

  The units of the Red Army and the operational groups of the GPU lost in all 27 men killed and 30 wounded"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Hostage-Taking

  Khasmagomadov quote this line of the report: among those arrested in the course of the operation - "leaders of the insurgent movement - 9, hostages - 35"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Manufacturing Criminals

  Khasmagomadov confirm the scale: repression "in connection with the case of the so-called 'Chechen nationalist center'" befell, "by some data, up to 3 thousand people"

• Collectivization of Chechnya (1927-1936) — technique Killing of Prisoners and Detainees

  Khasmagomadov write: "The five captured leaders of the uprising were soon shot"

  Khasmagomadov continue: "Arrests befell some well-known Chechen sheikhs, and Kana-Sheikh Khantiev was shot in April 1933"

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Khasmagomadov write: "In all, in October 1937, 30 of the 76 members and candidate members of the Chechen-Ingush obkom were repressed, including all the Chechens and Ingush; 20 of the 28 secretaries of district party committees; 77 members of district committees and 192 senior officials of the rural districts of the republic"

  in 1938 the colonizer removed almost all heads of the district land departments, 19 chairmen of district executive committees and 22 secretaries of district committees

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940) — technique Manufacturing Criminals

  The investigation entered among these 137 also Abdurakhman Avtorkhanov, who was then studying in Moscow: it wrote people into the case regardless of where they were and what they did

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940) — technique Destruction of Local Knowledge Systems

  The first Chechen literary works had appeared in the early 1920s

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940) — technique Torture and Abuse

  Khasmagomadov write: "...against all those arrested under political articles torture was widely applied, officially permitted as measures of 'physical influence'"; Stalin's letter, circulated to party organs in January 1939, said: "The TsK VKP(b) explains that the application of physical influence in the practice of the NKVD was permitted from 1937 with the sanction of the TsK VKP(b)"

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940) — technique Sham Trials

  Khasmagomadov describe also "conviction by albums" - sentencing in absentia on a brief docket, "without acquaintance with the criminal case itself"

• The Great Terror in Chechen-Ingushetia (1937-1940) — technique Killing of Prisoners and Detainees

  Oziev - sentenced to be shot"

• "Bombs Rained Down on the Auls": Repression and Air Strikes on Mountain Chechnya on the Eve of the Deportation (1941-1942) — technique Mass Killings of Civilians

  Bombs rained down on auls whose population did not even suspect any 'uprising'"

  On the Galanchozh district the testimonies and the documents diverge: the historians cite data gathered from those who were in the mountains - that "absolute calm was observed" there, "and the bombing of peaceful auls by Soviet aviation came as a shock even to the district leadership"

• "Bombs Rained Down on the Auls": Repression and Air Strikes on Mountain Chechnya on the Eve of the Deportation (1941-1942) — technique Imposition of Its Own Picture of Reality

  Khasmagomadov write, bore "features of social protest"

  The count kept by the secret services contradicted the picture they were imposing: over the whole of 1941 the NKVD organs eliminated 12 "bands" with a total strength of up to 100 men, recording four "bandit incidents" in which nine people died

  and the historians confirm: the detained deserters were "by no means from the front, but from units being formed in Grozny or passing through it"

  …front line"; at the same time, they write, in Checheno-Ingushetia "they began to count as 'deserters' also those who fled death in the 'labor army' or evaded mobilization into it," and they also write about the bookkeeping: "A man was counted as an 'evader', or even a deserter, if he failed to appear at the recruitment stations at first summons, even by reason of disability or of his own death"

  … 2 more

• "Bombs Rained Down on the Auls": Repression and Air Strikes on Mountain Chechnya on the Eve of the Deportation (1941-1942) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  Khasmagomadov render in the words "to quickly suppress any manifestations of banditry"

  In the same December, to support the operational groups, the USSR formed the 178th Motorized Rifle Battalion in Chechnya, expanded the following year into the 141st Regiment of NKVD troops (in the commander's report the regiment is called a rifle regiment, by the historians - a mountain-rifle one)

• "Bombs Rained Down on the Auls": Repression and Air Strikes on Mountain Chechnya on the Eve of the Deportation (1941-1942) — technique Forced Mobilization

  Khasmagomadov write, was carried out by the local military commissariats "by practically forcible methods"

  The historians write about the position of the mobilized: they "were on the footing of servicemen but were not counted as Red Army soldiers"

  Over 10 thousand unfortunate citizens of Checheno-Ingushetia died of cold, hunger and bombing, owing to the criminal negligence of the military officialdom"

  The survivors the colonizer declared "deserters of the labor front"; the historians write: "They were barely saved from execution by a government commission from Checheno-Ingushetia that traveled to Rostov-on-Don in response to complaints"

• "Bombs Rained Down on the Auls": Repression and Air Strikes on Mountain Chechnya on the Eve of the Deportation (1941-1942) — technique Use as Cannon Fodder

  Chechens and Ingush went to fight without any imperial coercion: already in the first year of the war over 18 thousand were at the front, by the third year - 32 thousand, by other accounts up to 50 thousand

  Khasmagomadov describe the events differently: a single 114th Chechen-Ingush Cavalry Division was being recruited - volunteers came a thousand over the establishment of 4.5 thousand - Moscow disbanded it, and the 255th Chechen-Ingush Cavalry Regiment of Major Movlid Visaitov, created on its base, was thrown by the USSR toward Stalingrad

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Imposition of Its Own Picture of Reality

  The USSR built its accusations of Chechen "banditry" on falsified statistics: an inspection by the central apparatus of the Soviet NKVD (predecessor of today's FSB) in the summer of 1943 showed that of 213 "bandits" reported killed, only 22 people had ever been on file; at the end of August 1943 the files listed 359 members of "bandit groups" for the entire Checheno-Ingushetia

  A very good memorandum,' Beria noted on the report, and set in motion the preparation of Operation 'Chechevitsa'"

  Khasmagomadov write: "In his report to the country's leadership the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs lied outright: the deportation of the Chechens was accompanied by numerous incidents and mass killings of peaceful residents"

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Deportation

  on 31 January the State Defense Committee of the USSR issued two resolutions on the deportation and the destinations

  over 15 thousand railway wagons and hundreds of locomotives, 6 thousand trucks"

  "By 11 o'clock of the first day of the deportation more than 94 thousand people had been taken out of various settlements"

  The NKVD hauled the people in 180 trains: following a "rationalization" proposal the agency packed the loading tighter - "densification of the loading of the special contingent" in its papers - from 24 to 45 people per wagon; historians write: "In reality up to 80 people were crammed into the freight 'teplushka' wagons"

  … 3 more

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Mass Killings of Civilians

  Beria, after which the stable itself was piled round with hay and set on fire"

  No one was saved"

  Gvishiani received from People's Commissar (Minister) of Internal Affairs Beria, the historians write, "a personal commendation, a recommendation for a decoration and a promotion in rank"

  Many of those who fled that day from the villages into the mountains or forest were shot on the spot without warning"

  … 1 more

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Terror

  And it was announced loudly and distinctly, in Russian: for attempted escape - execution, for failure to obey an order - execution, for expressing protest - execution"

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Medical and Humanitarian Blockade

  With no quarantine and no medicine at the destinations the epidemic spread: by 1 April 1944 about 4,800 people had fallen ill in Kazakhstan, over 2,000 in Kirghizia

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Artificial Famine

  In exile the Chechens and Ingush died by the tens of thousands: by the end of 1944 the number of exiles ("special settlers" in the colonizer's terms) had fallen by about 11.5 thousand in Kirghizia and by more than 46 thousand in Kazakhstan

  In 1945, among the North Caucasus exiles, 44,652 children died - 2,230 were born; no fewer than 80 thousand people were starving

  in the winter of 1948-1949 in the Kazakh SSR (today's Kazakhstan) up to 118 thousand were starving, and 418 people died of hunger

  By October 1948 about 146.9 thousand North Caucasus exiles had died in exile; historians put the direct losses of the Chechens and Ingush at 145.7 thousand people, and together with the unborn - at 300 thousand; the people recovered its pre-war numbers only by 1959

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  From January 1945 the commandant could, without trial, arrest "offenders" for up to 5 days or fine them up to 100 rubles

  By the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of 26 November 1948 the deportation was declared eternal: the Chechens and Ingush were "exiled in perpetuity," with up to 20 years of hard labor for escape and up to 5 years of prison for aiding escapees

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Restriction of Settlement Geography

  The colonizer locked the exiled Chechens and Ingush into their places of settlement: the commandant's offices forbade absences without their permission, and the mutual surety of the "ten-yard groups" was in force - ten neighboring households answered for one another

  People fled anyway: from the spring of 1944 to the end of 1950 - over 20.6 thousand escapes, and the chekists caught nearly all the escapees

  In 1948 the colonizer forbade the exiles to live within 100 kilometers of the USSR border and forcibly resettled over 6 thousand people deeper into Kazakhstan

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Administrative-Territorial Division

  the mountain part was divided between the Georgian SSR (today's Georgia) and the Dagestan ASSR (today's Dagestan within Russia), and the Ingush lands were handed to North Ossetia

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Migratory Replacement

  By mid-May 1944 settlers had arrived in Grozny Oblast numbering 40% of the deported Chechens, including 6,800 families from Stavropol Krai

  Into the districts handed to Dagestan the colonizer resettled 65 thousand people from 224 mountain villages of Dagestan

  The settlers died too: in the Aukh district in 1944-1947 about 2 thousand - nearly a third - of the resettled Laks, one of the mountain peoples of Dagestan, died of disease

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Destruction of Historical Memory

  On the land emptied by the deportation of the Chechens the colonizer destroyed the urban markers of their history: it ransacked the republican local history museum and blew up the monument to the Chechen commander Aslanbek Sheripov

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Destruction of Shrines and Necropolises

  The grave churts (stones) went into the foundations of factories and livestock farms; they were used to pave city streets and edge sidewalks"

  The colonizer destroyed the city mosque of Grozny

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Burning of Books and Archives

  All literature and textbooks in Arabic, Chechen and Ingush were burned"

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Erasure and Renaming of Place Names

  Khasmagomadov write: "Streets, settlements, auls and districts were hastily renamed"

  The Chechen lands that had gone to Georgia the colonizer named the Akhalkhevi district

• Operation "Chechevitsa": the Total Deportation of the Chechen People and the Special Settlement Regime (1943-1949) — technique Pillage

  Khasmagomadov sum up: "Implicated in the unrestrained theft of other people's goods was the entire party-economic and militia top brass of Grozny Oblast, Dagestan, Stavropol, North Ossetia and Georgia"; those caught were dismissed and tried, but "in the end the arrests had to be abandoned, since no one would have been left at liberty to govern"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Pitting Neighboring Peoples Against Each Other

  Khasmagomadov write: "In all, 36 Chechens were brutally killed, including women and children"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  To all the numerous letters and appeals of the highlanders to Moscow came the harsh, unambiguous answer that the Chechens and Ingush were to remain in their places of residence forever"

  Children were formally subject to universal schooling, but in 1945 in some oblasts of Kazakhstan up to 70% of the special settlers' children did not go to school: the families, robbed at deportation, had nothing to dress their children in - in the documents this is recorded as "by reason of the absence of warm clothing and footwear"

  and in 1946, of the 89 thousand special settlers' children from the North Caucasus obliged to study under the law on universal education, only 22 thousand actually studied

  By 1949 no less than 60% of the North Caucasus special settlers were completely illiterate; 2.1% had a complete secondary education, 0.2% - higher education

  … 3 more

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Destruction of Local Knowledge Systems

  …a real 'ideological diversion' by publishing in Moscow in 1953 the study 'The Batsbi Language'" - the historians write that in this way he "tried to preserve for posterity the language of the Vainakh people, which by the decision of the 'father of the peoples' [Stalin] was to vanish from the face of the earth" (the Batsbi of Transcaucasia, they explain, spoke one of the dialects of Chechen)

  The same historians write that the Chechen intelligentsia itself held on to the language: by its efforts the first issue of the Chechen newspaper "Qinkhyegaman bayrakh" ("Banner of Labor") came out in the summer of 1955

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Restriction of Settlement Geography

  and in 1956 "of 328 thousand Chechens, a little over 191.4 thousand were on the registers of the special commandant's offices"

  especially in the Cossack districts beyond the Terek, and in arid, unhealthy places remote from district centers and towns"

  The same historians write that in the stanitsas, along the way, "conditions were created for their rapid cultural and linguistic assimilation": "In the stanitsas teaching was conducted only in Russian; the heads of stanitsa soviets, districts and farms remained exclusively Russians"

  the true purpose of this action was to create administrative obstacles in the way of the migration of the Chechen population into Grozny," and "The initiators of the introduction of the ban, under the pretext of tightening the fight against a rise in offenses, were the party and soviet organs of Chechen-Ingushetia"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Total Destruction of Infrastructure

  The organs of the KGB and MVD drove out onto the plain by force of arms the families of highlanders who by hook or by crook had made their way along paths above the clouds into their native auls"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Administrative-Territorial Division

  Khasmagomadov write: "The unanimous protests of the Chechen-Ingush delegation on the question of the Prigorodny district were ignored by the Central Committee of the CPSU"; the colonizer cut off "1,600 square kilometers of exclusively black-earth land," and enlarged the republic "at the expense of the sandy lands of the Burunnaya steppe (in essence, semi-desert) beyond the Terek"

  For this the returning Chechens were not allowed to settle in their old houses in their native auls, but were dispersed in small groups" across five districts

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Administrative Corruption and Extortion

  Khasmagomadov write that officials of the Organizing Committee, which was in charge of the Chechens' return to the republic, "frequently extorted bribes for passes giving the right to resettle immediately from Kazakhstan and Central Asia to the Caucasus"

  No one returned the houses of the deported: "Wild as it may seem, most often the Chechens had to buy back their houses and land from the new owners"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Imposition of Alien Governance

  Khasmagomadov write that around the first secretary of the Bolshevik party's oblast committee (the "obkom of the CPSU") Yakovlev "there formed a grouping of leading officials which had a negative attitude '...toward the act of restoring the autonomy of the Chechen-Ingush people...'," and Yakovlev himself "openly declared that he considered the decision on the rehabilitation of the repressed peoples a great mistake"

  These excesses have been, are and, regrettably, will be, unless the position and tactics of the obkom change"

  The same historians write: "Very quickly an unspoken system of distributing the highest posts takes shape in socialist Chechen-Ingushetia" - the posts of first secretary of the party's oblast committee, minister of internal affairs, prosecutor, head of the KGB (predecessor of today's FSB), head of "Grozneft" and others "are reserved for Russian leaders"

• "Exiled Forever": Life in Special Settlement and Return to an Occupied Homeland (1949-1965) — technique Migratory Replacement

  Khasmagomadov write that already by mid-May 1944 the newcomers in Grozny oblast numbered 40% of the Chechens deported from it, and "there were few willing to go to the new places" - so the colonizer paid the settlers 2,500 rubles per family and exempted them from taxes for a year

  Khasmagomadov sum up: "As a result of artificial shifts of territorial borders and of 'corrections' in the settlement of the repressed peoples, by 1961 the Chechens and Ingush made up 41% of the population of the republic, whereas in 1939 their share had reached 58.4%"

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Imposition of Alien Governance

  …of the KGB [predecessor of today's FSB], minister of finance, secretary of the Grozny gorkom of the CPSU [head of the city] and chairman of the Grozny gorispolkom [head of the city administration], head of Grozneft, military commissar of the republic and some others) are reserved for Russian officials"; for the Chechens and the Ingush, 70 % of the population, "roughly 30% of posts were reserved"

  In most rural districts the first secretaries of the raikoms [heads of districts] were Russians"

  The historians write: "That is precisely why the CC of the CPSU [the central authority in Moscow] keeps sending new first secretaries of the obkom [heads of the region] to Chechen-Ingushetia" - in 1966-1989 these were Apryatkin, Vlasov and Foteev, sent in from other regions

  Khasmagomadov write that only by the mid-1980s did Chechens and Ingush head 155 of the 194 village soviets and 11 of the 19 city and district soviets, while "the most significant posts at the middle and republican level, as well as the leadership of Grozny and of the regional committee of the CPSU, remained with the Russian nomenklatura"

  … 1 more

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Lyanov were expelled from the party

  Two people were expelled from the party"

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Rewriting of History

  Khasmagomadov write that the region's occupation administration launched a persecution of the Chechen intelligentsia "under the guise of a discussion around the 'concept' of the 200th anniversary of the voluntary entry of Chechen-Ingushetia into Russia", whose author was considered to be the archaeologist Vinogradov, and he "relied even on the authority of the CC of the CPSU [the central authority in Moscow]"

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Seizure of Religious Institutions

  Khasmagomadov write that religious schools "after the closure of most mosques… moved into the homes of mullahs and Islamic scholars"

  historians Akhmadov and Khasmagomadov add that in Grozny "the city mosque was destroyed"

  Khasmagomadov write that the region's occupation authorities "directly forbade the opening of mosques in Chechen and Ingush villages, and did not allow the numerous murid [religious] communities to perform religious rites openly either"

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Ban on the Indigenous People's Religious Practice

  Khasmagomadov write: "The performance of the 'loud' zikr [prayer aloud] of the Qadiri tariqa [brotherhood] (the order of Kunta-Haji) was suppressed with particular severity"

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Migratory Replacement

  Moreover, some specialists received the keys to their flats right at the railway station"

  The historians write: "Every year more than 100 thousand people, organised in construction brigades, left Chechen-Ingushetia for construction work"

  From the second half of the 1980s the region's occupation administration, under agreements with the Kalinin, Novgorod and Omsk regions, sent villagers to settle in the Non-Black-Earth zone

  the historians write: "the main cause of migration was unemployment"

• "Only Pardoned": Alien Rule and the Suppression of Chechen and Ingush National Life (1965-1989) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  Khasmagomadov write: "these restrictions in fact ceased to operate only in the 1980s"

  Ten years later the level of hidden unemployment, by some estimates, had risen to 40%"