Catalogue · ID 251

Мир чеченцев. XIX век

Author: Ибрагимова З. Х.
Year of publication: 2007
Describes Russian colonization of peoples: Nokhchi (Chechens)
Publication rights: not allowed (a contemporary monograph under copyright)

Files not published

Where we got it

Edition: https://books.google.com/books?id=sr4wNAAACAAJ

Where the knowledge base cites it

This material is cited in 33 places.

Campaigns

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878)

  the mass is induced to counteract them"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872)

  The chief of staff of the Caucasus Corps, Milyutin, admitted the nature of the policy in writing as early as 1857: "our duties to the human race require that we take measures in advance to secure the existence even of the tribes hostile to us, whom we are forcing out of their lands out of state necessity"

  / Here it is, the day of the Last Judgement!"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917)

  Ibragimova writes: "The Chechens treasured and kept this proclamation as the apple of their eye and always appealed to it"

  The outcome for the people was named from the Duma tribune by deputy Maslov: "You cannot imagine how negligible the landholdings of the Chechens are, especially in the mountains – one tenth, one fifth, a quarter, a third of a desiatina…"

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917)

  On 16 February 1845 paragraph 154 of the "Regulations on the Caucasus Line Host" gave the Cossack host the income from the oil springs near the Groznaya fortress: "as a mark of special favor…the host is granted the income most graciously bestowed upon it from the oil springs near the Groznaya fortress"

  The legal frame was formulated in 1894 by the head of the Terek oblast, General Kakhanov (he headed the oblast from 1889 to 1900

  Ibragimova sums up the distribution: "If the total income from the oil industry is taken as 100%, the industrialists received 35%, the treasury 32%, the owners of the land 24% and the middlemen 9%" - the owner of the land was deemed to be the Cossack host, and the Chechen community had no share

  Only two villages - Aldy and Novye Aldy - managed to strike deals with the industrialists directly, and these deals show the real price of the subsoil: on 18 April 1915 the assembly of Novye Aldy - a village of 520 households - leased 20 desiatinas to the oil industrialist Stepan Lianozov for 24 years at 5 thousand rubles per desiatina plus 2 kopecks to the community for every pud of oil extracted

  … 1 more

Procedures

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Punitive Expeditions

  evicting the Chechens by force of arms into the foothills and onto the plain"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Total Destruction of Infrastructure

  In Ezi you cannot even recognize the place, so thoroughly has it been taken apart"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Deportation

  Over the winter of 1861, 1500 mountain Chechens were deported to the Chechen plain"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Ibragimova relays the Chechen oral tradition about the execution: none of those standing by the gallows agreed to act as executioner, and "only after the officers in charge of the execution offered a monetary reward to a volunteer executioner did one of the Dagestanis standing in the crowd take this role upon himself"

  Among those bayoneted there proved to be 5 women's bodies"; the detachment's losses - 8 dead and 33 wounded

  a month"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Forced Surrender of Fugitives and Rebels

  He also forbade the performance of zikrist rites"

• Suppression of the 1860-1861 uprisings, the execution of Baysangur, and the shooting of the zikrists near Shali (1860-1864) — technique Hostage-Taking

  Because of this, one zikrist gave himself up so that his family would be released" - Yekaterinograd here is not the Kuban Yekaterinodar but the stanitsa of Yekaterinogradskaya on the Terek, now in Kabardino-Balkaria; the auls of Chechnya "were bound by mutual responsibility", with lists of those answerable to the government

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Erasure and Renaming of Place Names

  The Groznaya fortress, founded by General Yermolov on the Sunzha on 10 June 1818

• "Military-Popular Administration": the Colonial Regime of the Terek Oblast (1858-1917) — technique Terror

  …the head of the Terek oblast reported that the clashes between Chechens and Cossacks were bringing material damage and human casualties and that these groups of the population should be kept apart, Nicholas II replied that "it is precisely this neighbourhood that keeps up in the Cossacks their old ancestral daring, and therefore there is no need whatever to take measures to soften the situation"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Artificial Famine

  The food base was being destroyed from the very first days: on 13 April 1877, merely for letting the detachment of Alibek-Haji, leader of the uprising, pass through the village, "the hayfields and maize fields of the inhabitants [of Benoy] were completely burned by the tsarist troops"

  Ibragimova, "widely applied the destruction of stores of grain and hay," believing that this made many "come to their senses"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Hostage-Taking

  Ibragimova, declared that he considered it "a useful measure to shoot five of the amanats of every aul that had broken away"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Neutralization of the Opposition

  Ibragimova counts 18 tried and 13 sentenced to death, the rest - to 20 years of katorga (penal labor)

  A participant in the suppression who was present at the execution admitted: "I was struck by the calm with which these people died"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Deportation

  Ibragimova gives the count for a single governorate: "of the 1625 highlanders deported in 1878 to the Novgorod governorate, 429 died within the first months (118 of them men, the rest - women) and 74 were declared hopelessly ill"

  For subsistence the adults are allotted 6 kopecks a day, the children 3 kopecks"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  Ibragimova records - "Thousands of inhabitants of mountain villages were resettled onto the plain; their lands were confiscated"

• "Mow Down Everything, Beat and Hang Without Mercy": Suppression of the 1877 Uprising and the Executions in Grozny (1877-1878) — technique Pillage

  Ibragimova records the practice beyond the orders: "the soldiers looted with impunity in the occupied territories, and also ravaged crops, took horses away from the population, slaughtered livestock even without any need for it"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Deportation

  The first families set out from Vladikavkaz on 28 May 1865; the last crossed the border on 10 September

  Ibragimova writes - "In the course of the resettlement about 40,000 highlanders of the Terek oblast perished, which was slightly less than half of all those who had left"; according to the dispatches of the Russian consul, in Trebizond in 1864 some 180-250 people were dying each day, in Samsun - 200

  The lands allotted for settlement "were unfit for agriculture – stony and barren"

  the colony of Ras al-Ayn, where mainly Chechens had been settled, shrank by 1878 from 4-5 thousand families to 500

  … 1 more

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Migratory Replacement

  These lands were confiscated for the benefit of the treasury"

  and it was allotted "to Russian officers, the local nobility and, chiefly, to the Cossack hosts"

  …step by step: in 1868 the resettlement of the Chechens was directly subordinated to the stationing of the Sunzha Cossack regiments - there was an option of leaving the inhabitants on the right bank of the Sunzha, "but the Cossack host laid claim to these lands, so the Chechens were moved to the left bank of the Terek and the Sunzha, and their lands were taken by the 1st and 2nd Sunzha regiments"

  From 1863 to 1885, 112 settlements were founded in the Terek oblast, mostly of Russian settlers, while the Terek Cossack Host occupied a third of the oblast's area while making up a fifth of its inhabitants

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Creation of Economic Hopelessness

  Ippolitov, wrote to the head of the Terek oblast, General Loris-Melikov: "I can positively tell Your Excellency that the people are not even thinking of voluntary resettlement to Turkey; at a general assembly they declared to me that they would go only when the whole of Chechnya leaves to the last man, or when they are ordered to go"

  Colonel Bellik on 25 March 1865 reported to the same Loris-Melikov the words of a Chechen: "we will not go to Turkey and will not let those go who are preparing to; in Turkey death awaits us, and it awaits us here too, but here it is more pleasant, because here is our homeland and here lie our fathers, slain by the Russians"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Disinformation

  consequently, all this must remain in the deepest secrecy; on our skill it will depend to complete the great [work] without bloodshed or particular disorders…"

  - Loris-Melikov himself asked in writing to be sent samples of Turkish proclamations "for circulation among the population"

  Agents frightened the people with the future: they "spread provocative rumours that not a single Chechen would receive a scrap of land, that all the young men would be given up as soldiers, that the Muslim religion would sooner be banned and everyone would become Christians"

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Bribery of Elites

  Ibragimova writes of 10 thousand "for the 'discreet remuneration' of three or four persons most popular among the population, that is, for bribing influential figures"

  The price of the purchase is visible on him too: he governed his naibstvo for eight years, received 550 desiatinas of land for his service, swore on the Quran to assist the resettlement "to the end" and undertook to lead the second wave of those departing - going ahead of the first was a condition of payment of the reward

  He worked in such a way that even the head of the Terek oblast, General Loris-Melikov, admitted the naib was "overdoing it," spreading distorted rumours, and wanted to rid himself as soon as possible of the too-hotheaded agitator

• Muhajirism: the expulsion of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire, the ban on return, and population replacement (1858-1872) — technique Restriction of Settlement Geography

  Under the rules approved in June 1861 by the chief of the Main Staff of the Caucasus Army, General Kartsov, highlanders who had entered Turkish subjecthood or overstayed their passports were "resolutely forbidden" to return

  they no longer had anywhere to return to; their ancestral lands had been either confiscated or sold"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  Thus, there is no free land left…"

  Ibragimova, "50989 desiatinas of pasture were confiscated to the treasury", and the same pastures were then handed back to the communities "on terms of quitrent use"

  after the uprising of 1877 the residents of Dyshni-Vedeno had 74 certificates for cleared plots taken away "as punishment, for support of the insurgents"

  In 1888 the Chechen communities petitioned the emperor: building materials and firewood they were "forced to buy from private owners or from the treasury, whereas formerly they had used them free of charge"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Migratory Replacement

  The Kakhanovskaya stanitsa "was founded in 1860 on the site of the village of Umakhan-Yurt in the bend of the lower Sunzha" and found itself almost encircled by 14 Chechen villages, which took in the evicted people of Umakhan-Yurt

  Six stanitsas of the Kizlyar otdel "were situated on the lands of the expelled Chechen population", and the Baryatinskaya stanitsa, planted right up against the large village of Stary Yurt, took away part of the Stary Yurt residents' lands

  Ibragimova, "the highlanders lost 262946 desiatinas of lowland land"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  The allotment norm was written out by estate and origin: "Cossacks are allotted 30 desiatinas (a desiatina is a little over a hectare) per soul, while natives get no more than 2-5 desiatinas"

  Ibragimova relies, Russian residents of the Caucasus krai received "24–30 desiatinas of land allotment per soul, whereas natives got 12–18 desiatinas per dym, which on average numbered 5 men" (a dym is a hearth, a household)

  418 of the viceroy of 1863, "the right to buy land plots from the local population was received by Russian officers and officials of the oblast administration"

  - an ordinary Chechen could not be a buyer of that same category of land; the rules of 1 March 1902 instituted the buying-up of privately owned lands "for the needs of the Caucasus Cossack hosts, at the expense of their capital funds"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Creation of Economic Hopelessness

  In 1901 on the Chechen plain "a family (usually quite numerous) had from 7 to 14 desiatinas"

  The richest Chechen family on the plain, according to the Terek Oblast Statistical Committee (1903), received an income of 262 rubles from its land allotment while spending 414 rubles on its upkeep; the deficit came to 152 rubles"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Administrative Corruption and Extortion

  Ibragimova: "Speculative leasing became widespread; it was practiced by officials of the government and administration and by officers, who rented large areas at 10-15 kopecks per desiatina and sublet them to the highland population at a price several times the original"

• Land plunder: the colonial repartition of land, land hunger and Cossack colonization of the Terek oblast (1860-1917) — technique Bribery of Elites

  Ibragimova, "8674 desiatinas were given out into private ownership, for services, to influential local people of Chechnya" (a desiatina is a little over a hectare); 57 Chechens received it, and Ibragimova names the viceroy in the Caucasus, Baryatinsky, as the initiator of the handouts

  The hierarchy of the handouts followed estate lines: to the largest highland owners - "from 1 to 5 thousand desiatinas, depending 'on the degree of significance and the services rendered by each to the government'", to persons of the second category (the highland notability, the first being Russian nobles) - up to 1 thousand

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917) — technique Expropriation of Resources

  The Russian Empire took the oil wells near the Groznaya fortress away from the Chechens and on 16 February 1845 sealed the seizure by law: paragraph 154 of the "Regulations on the Caucasus Line Host", confirmed by Emperor Nicholas I, read: "as a mark of special favor…the host is granted the income most graciously bestowed upon it from the oil springs near the Groznaya fortress"

  and sold at a free price"; "Later, the oil was taken away from the Chechens and became the property of the Caucasus Line regiment, which farmed it out"

  Over the 57 years of the tax-farming system, from 1833 to 1890, the host received 152,500 rubles in silver of net income

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917) — technique Legal Segregation of the Population

  By orders for the Terek oblast of 15 August 1890 and March 1897 the Russian Empire forbade the Chechen village communities "to enter into any agreements with mining industrialists" without the government's permission - "The guilty, in the person of village officials, were brought to account, and suits were brought in the courts to annul the concluded contracts"

  Ibragimova: "The aul communities were deprived of the right to lease out oil-bearing plots - the land was granted to them not by right of property but only into use with the right of surface working; its subsoil was considered the property of the treasury"

  Still less was there any question of material reward"

• Colonial oil: the seizure of the Grozny subsoil and the rent of the Cossack host (1845-1917) — technique Resource Exploitation

  Ibragimova records the dynamic: the host's capital grew from 400 thousand rubles in 1877 to 3 million in 1900 - "This was the result of receiving income from the oil-bearing lands"